INN monograph
Triazolam
Benzodiazepine [EPC] · POM
Verified · Updated 01 Aug 2026 · Source: Local active-ingredient clinical extract; FDA drug label via OpenFDA/DailyMed; Professional class pharmacology (Therapeutic agent (verify pharmacological class))
Kenya market
Wholesale / list prices where loaded
Risk first
Contraindications
- 4 CONTRAINDICATIONS Triazolam is contraindicated in: Patients with known hypersensitivity to triazolam, any of component of triazolam, or other benzodiazepines.
- Reactions consistent with angioedema (involving the tongue, glottis, or larynx), dyspnea, and throat closing have been reported and may be fatal.
- Concomitant administration of strong cytochrome P450 (CYP 3A) enzyme inhibitors (e.g., ketoconazole, itraconazole, nefazodone, lopinavir, ritonavir) [see Warnings and Precautions ( 5.8 ), Drug Interactions ( 7.1 )].
- Known hypersensitivity to triazolam or other benzodiazepines ( 4 ) Concomitant use with medications that significantly impair the oxidative metabolism mediated by cytochrome P450 3A (CYP 3A) including ketoconazole, itraconazole, nefazodone, and several human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) protease inhibitors ( 4 , 5.8 , 17 )
Precautions
- 5 WARNINGS AND PRECAUTIONS Persistent or Worsening Insomnia : Since sleep disturbances may be the presenting manifestation of a physical and/or psychiatric disorder, symptomatic treatment of insomnia should be initiated only after a careful evaluation of the patient.
- The failure of insomnia to remit after 7 to 10 days of treatment may indicate the presence of a primary psychiatric and/or medical illness that should be evaluated.
- ( 5.4 ) "Sleep-driving" and Other Complex Behaviors : Complex behaviors such as "sleep-driving" have been reported.
- The use of alcohol and other central nervous system (CNS) depressants with sedative-hypnotics appears to increase the risk, as well as doses exceeding the maximum recommended dose.
- ( 5.5 ) CNS Manifestations: An increase in daytime anxiety, abnormal thinking, and behavioral changes have been reported.
- Emergence of any new behavioral changes require careful and immediate evaluation.
- ( 5.6 ) Effects on Driving and Operating Heavy Machinery: Patients receiving triazolam should be cautioned against driving or operating heavy machinery, as well as avoiding concomitant use with alcohol and other CNS depressant drugs.
- ( 5.7 ) Patients with Depression: Caution should be exercised in patients with signs or symptoms of depression that could be intensified by hypnotic drugs.
- Prescribe the least number of tablets feasible to avoid intentional overdose.
- ( 5.9 ) Neonatal Sedation and Withdrawal Syndrome : Triazolam use during pregnancy can result in neonatal sedation and/or neonatal withdrawal.
- ( 5.10 , 8.1 ) 5.1 Risks From Concomitant Use With Opioids Concomitant use of benzodiazepines, including triazolam, and opioids may result in profound sedation, respiratory depression, coma, and death.
- Because of these risks, reserve concomitant prescribing of these drugs in patients for whom alternative treatment options are inadequate.
Point of care
Dosing
Adult
2 DOSAGE AND ADMINISTRATION Adults: Recommended dosage is 0.25 mg once daily before bedtime. Maximum recommended dosage is 0.5 mg once daily ( 2.1 ) Geriatric patients: Reduce starting dosage to 0.125 mg once daily. May increase to 0.25 mg if no response. Geriatric patients should not exceed 0.25 mg once daily ( 2.2 , 8.5 ) Triazolam should not be prescribed in quantities exceeding a 1-month supply ( 2.1 ) 2.1 Dosing Information The recommended dosage is 0.25 mg once daily before bedtime. A dosage of 0.125 mg once daily may be sufficient for some patients (e.g., patients with low body weight). A dosage of 0.5 mg should be used only for patients who do not respond adequately to a trial of a lower dose. The maximum recommended dosage is 0.5 mg once daily. Use the lowest effective dose for the patient as there are significant dose related adverse reactions. Use of triazolam for more than 3 weeks requires evaluation of the patient for a primary psychiatric or medical condition [see Warnings and Precautions ( 5.4 , 5.6 )] . Prescriptions for triazolam should be written for short-term use (7 to 10 days) and it should not be prescribed in quantities exceeding a 1-month supply. 2.2 Use in Geriatric Patients In geriatric patients, the recommended dosage is 0.125 mg to 0.25 mg once daily. Initiate therapy at 0.125 mg once daily. The 0.25 mg dose should be used only for patients who do not respond to a trial of the lower dose. The maximum recommended dosage is 0.25 mg once daily. Elderly patients have an increased risk of dose related adverse reactions [see Use in Specific Populations ( 8.5 )] . 2.3 Discontinuation or Dosage Reduction of Triazolam To reduce the risk of withdrawal reactions, use a gradual taper to discontinue triazolam or reduce the dosage. If a patient develops withdrawal reactions, consider pausing the taper or increasing the dosage to the previous tapered dosage level. Subsequently decrease the dosage more slowly [see Warnings and Precautions ( 5.3 ), Drug Abuse and Dependence ( 9.3 )] .
Paediatric
8.4 Pediatric Use Safety and effectiveness of triazolam have not been established in pediatric patients.
Renal
Review renal impairment dosing; many agents need CrCl/eGFR adjustment.
- CrCl 0–120: Confirm renal dosing in product SmPC / primary label.
Hepatic
Review hepatic impairment dosing; monitor LFTs if agent is hepatically cleared or hepatotoxic.
Safety
Drug interactions
- Professional use: confirm indication, dose, duration, monitoring and patient counselling points against current Kenya STG / EML and the product SmPC.
- Document allergy status and key interactions.
Safety
Adverse effects
- sections: Risks from Concomitant Use with Opioids [see Warnings and Precautions ( 5.1 )] Abuse, Misuse, and Addiction [see Warnings and Precautions ( 5.2 )] Dependence and Withdrawal Reactions [see Warnings and Precautions ( 5.3 )] Persistent or Worsening Insomnia [see Warnings and Precautions ( 5.4 )] "Sleep-driving" and Other Complex Behaviors [see Warnings and Precautions ( 5.5 )] Central Nervous System Manifestations [see Warnings and Precautions ( 5.6 )] Effects on Driving and Operating Heavy Machinery [see Warnings and Precautions ( 5.7 )] Patients with Depression [see Warnings and Precautions ( 5.9 )] Neonatal Sedation and Withdrawal Syndrome [see Warnings and Precautions ( 5.10 )] Compromised Respiratory Function [see Warnings and Precautions ( 5.11 )] Most common adverse reactions (incidence ≥4% and twice placebo) are drowsiness, dizziness, light-headedness, and coordination disorder/ataxia.
- ( 6.1 ) To report SUSPECTED ADVERSE REACTIONS, contact Zydus Pharmaceuticals (USA) Inc. at 1-877-993-8779 or FDA at 1-800-FDA-1088 or www.fda.gov/medwatch. 6.1 Clinical Trials Experience Because clinical trials are conducted under widely varying conditions, adverse reaction rates observed in the clinical trials of a drug cannot be directly compared to rates in the clinical trials of another drug and may not reflect the rates observed in practice.
- The incidences cited below are estimates of clinical reactions among 1,003 subjects who participated in the short term (duration of 1 to 42 days) placebo-controlled clinical trials of triazolam.
- Adverse reactions leading to discontinuation in two multi-dose placebo controlled clinical trials include coordination disorders, drowsiness, grogginess, somnolence, depression, restlessness, dizziness, lightheadedness, headache, nausea, visual disturbance, nervousness, abdominal distress, bladder trouble, aching limbs, backache, and blepharitis.
- Table 1 Common Adverse Drug Reactions in 1% or More of Triazolam-Treated Subjects (and Greater than Placebo) Reported in Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trials Event Triazolam (N=1,003) % Patients Reporting Placebo (N=997) % Patients Reporting Central Nervous System Drowsiness 14 6.4 Headache 9.7 8.4 Dizziness 7.8 3.1 Nervousness 5.2 4.5 Light-headedness 4.9 0.9 Coordination disorders/ataxia 4.6 0.8 Gastrointestinal Nausea/vomiting 4.6 3.7 In addition to the common reactions enumerated above in Table1, the following adverse reactions have been reported at an incidence of 0.9% to 0.5%: euphoria, tachycardia, tiredness, confusional states/memory impairment, cramps/pain, depression, and visual disturbances.
- Adverse reactions reported at an incidence less than 0.5% include: constipation, taste alterations, diarrhea, dry mouth, dermatitis/allergy, dreaming/nightmares, insomnia, paresthesia, tinnitus, dysesthesia, weakness, congestion, and death from hepatic failure in a patient also receiving diuretic drugs. 6.2 Postmarketing Experience The following adverse reactions have been identified during post-approval use of triazolam.
- Because these reactions are reported voluntarily from a population of uncertain size, it is not always possible to reliably estimate their frequency or establish a causal relationship to drug exposure.
- General disorders and administration site conditions: Paradoxical drug reaction, chest pain and fatigue Gastrointestinal disorders: Tongue discomfort, glossitis, stomatitis Hepatobiliary disorders: Jaundice Injury, poisoning and procedural complications: Fall Metabolism and nutrition disorders: Anorexia Nervous system disorders : Anterograde amnesia, altered state of consciousness, dystonia, sedation, syncope, dysarthria and muscle spasticity Psychiatric disorders: Confusional state (disorientation, derealisation, depersonalization), mania, agitation, restlessness, irritability, sleep disorder and libido disorder, hallucination, delusion, aggression, somnambulism, and abnormal behavior Renal and urinary disorders: Urinary retention and urinary incontinence Reproductive system and breast disorders: Menstruation irregular Skin and subcutaneous tissue disorders: Pruritis
Use
Indications
- 1 INDICATIONS AND USAGE Triazolam tablets are indicated for the short-term treatment of insomnia (generally 7 to 10 days) in adults.
- Triazolam tablets are a benzodiazepine indicated for the short-term treatment of insomnia (generally 7 to 10 days) in adults.
Pharmacology
Mode of action
12.
Full mechanism text
12.1 Mechanism of Action Triazolam is a benzodiazepine. Triazolam exerts its effect for the short-term treatment of insomnia through binding to the benzodiazepine site of the gamma-aminobutyric acid-A (GABA A ) receptors in the brain and enhances GABA-mediated synaptic inhibition.
ADME
Pharmacokinetics & PD
| Onset | Product-specific |
|---|---|
| Duration | Product-specific |
| Route | See product SmPC |
| Absorption | Peak plasma levels of triazolam are reached within 2 hours following oral administration. Following recommended doses of triazolam, triazolam peak plasma levels in the range of 1 to 6 ng/mL are seen. The plasma levels achieved are proportional to the dose given. In normal subject... |
| Distribution | Extremely high concentrations of triazolam do not displace bilirubin bound to human serum albumin in vitro . |
| Metabolism | The initial step in triazolam metabolism is cytochrome P450 3A (CYP 3A)-mediated hydroxylation to form 1-hydroxytriazolam and 4-hydroxytriazolam, which are subsequently conjugated to form glucuronides. |
| Elimination | Triazolam has a mean plasma elimination |
| Half-life | in the range of 1.5 to 5.5 hours. |
Full PK/PD text
12 CLINICAL PHARMACOLOGY 12.1 Mechanism of Action Triazolam is a benzodiazepine. Triazolam exerts its effect for the short-term treatment of insomnia through binding to the benzodiazepine site of the gamma-aminobutyric acid-A (GABA A ) receptors in the brain and enhances GABA-mediated synaptic inhibition. 12.3 Pharmacokinetics Absorption Peak plasma levels of triazolam are reached within 2 hours following oral administration. Following recommended doses of triazolam, triazolam peak plasma levels in the range of 1 to 6 ng/mL are seen. The plasma levels achieved are proportional to the dose given. In normal subjects treated for 7 days with four times the recommended dosage, there was no evidence of altered systemic bioavailability, rate of elimination, or accumulation. Distribution Extremely high concentrations of triazolam do not displace bilirubin bound to human serum albumin in vitro . Elimination Triazolam has a mean plasma elimination half-life in the range of 1.5 to 5.5 hours. Metabolism The initial step in triazolam metabolism is cytochrome P450 3A (CYP 3A)-mediated hydroxylation to form 1-hydroxytriazolam and 4-hydroxytriazolam, which are subsequently conjugated to form glucuronides. Excretion Triazolam and its metabolites, principally as conjugated glucuronides which are presumably inactive, are excreted primarily in the urine. Only small amounts of unmetabolized triazolam appear in the urine. The two primary metabolites accounted for 79.9% of urinary excretion. Urinary excretion appeared to be biphasic in its time course. Specific Populations Geriatric Patients In a study of elderly (62 to 83 years old) versus younger subjects (21 to 41 years old) who received triazolam at the same dose levels (0.125 mg and 0.25 mg), the elderly experienced both greater sedation and impairment of psychomotor performance. These effects resulted largely from higher plasma concentrations of triazolam in the elderly. Drug Interaction Studies The effect of other drugs on triazolam: Macrolide Antibiotics Coadministration of erythromycin increased the maximum plasma concentration of triazolam by 46%, decreased clearance by 53%, and increased half-life by 35%. Cimetidine Coadministration of cimetidine increased the maximum plasma concentration of triazolam by 51%, decreased clearance by 55%, and increased half-life by 68%. Isoniazid Coadministration of isoniazid increased the maximum plasma concentration of triazolam by 20%, decreased clearance by 42%, and increased half-life by 31%. Oral Contraceptives Coadministration of oral contraceptives increased maximum plasma concentration by 6%, decreased clearance by 32%, and increased half-life by 16%. Grapefruit Juice Coadministration of grapefruit juice increased the maximum plasma concentration of triazolam by 25%, increased the area under the concentration curve by 48%, and increased half-life by 18%. Ranitidine Coadministration of ranitidine increased the maximum plasma concentration of triazolam by 30%, increased the area under the concentration curve by 27%, and increased half-life by 3.3%. Caution is recommended during coadministration with triazolam. Available data from clinical studies of benzodiazepines other than triazolam suggest a possible drug interaction with triazolam for the following: fluvoxamine, diltiazem, and verapamil. Data from in vitro studies of triazolam suggest a possible drug interaction with triazolam for the following: sertraline and paroxetine. Data from in vitro studies of benzodiazepines other than triazolam suggest a possible drug interaction with triazolam for the following: ergotamine, cyclosporine, amiodarone, nicardipine, and nifedipine. The effect of triazolam on other drugs: Warfarin Triazolam Tablets 0.5 mg, in two separate studies, did not affect the prothrombin times or plasma warfarin levels in male volunteers administered sodium warfarin orally.
Kenya
Brands & prices
| Brand | Company | Pack | KES |
|---|---|---|---|
| No brands linked yet. | |||
Special populations
Pregnancy & lactation
Pregnancy
8.1 Pregnancy Pregnancy Exposure Registry There is a pregnancy exposure registry that monitors pregnancy outcomes in women exposed to psychiatric medications, including triazolam, during pregnancy. Healthcare providers are encouraged to register patients by calling the National Pregnancy Registry for Psychiatric Medications at 1-866-961-2388 or visiting online at https://womensmentalhealth.org/pregnancyregistry/. Risk Summary Neonates born to mothers using benzodiazepines late in pregnancy have been reported to experience symptoms of sedation and/or neonatal withdrawal [see Warnings and Precautions ( 5.10 ) and Clinical Considerations ]. Available data from published observational studies of pregnant women exposed to benzodiazepines do not report a clear association with benzodiazepines and major birth defects (see Data). The background risk of major birth defects and miscarriage for the indicated population is unknown. All pregnancies have a background risk of birth defect, loss, or other adverse outcomes. In the U.S. general population, the estimated background risk of major birth defects and miscarriage in clinically recognized pregnancies is 2% to 4% and 15% to 20%, respectively. Clinical Considerations Fetal/Neonatal Adverse Reactions Benzodiazepines cross the placenta and may produce respiratory depression, hypotonia, and sedation in neonates. Monitor neonates exposed to triazolam during pregnancy or labor for signs of sedation, respiratory depression, hypotonia and feeding problems. Monitor neonates exposed to triazolam during pregnancy for signs of withdrawal. Manage these neonates accordingly [see Warnings and Precautions ( 5.10 )]. Data Human Data Published data from observational studies on the use of benzodiazepines during pregnancy do not report a clear association with benzodiazepines and major birth defects. Although early studies reported an increased risk of congenital malformations with diazepam and chlordiazepoxide, there was no consistent pattern noted. In addition, the majority of more recent case-control and cohort studies of benzodiazepine use during pregnancy, which were adjusted for confounding exposures to alcohol, tobacco and other medications, have not confirmed these findings. Animal Data Oral administration of triazolam to pregnant rats and rabbits during the period of organogenesis caused skeletal developmental changes (variations and malformations) at maternally toxic doses in rats and at doses in rats and rabbits which are approximately equal to or greater than 200 times the maximum recommended human dose (MRHD) of 0.5 mg/day based on mg/m 2 body surface area. Oral administration of triazolam to male and female rats before mating, and continuing during gestation and lactation did not result in embryotoxicity at doses up to approximately 100 times the MRHD based on mg/m 2 body surface area, but did cause an increase in the number of stillbirths and postnatal pup mortalities at doses greater than or equal to approximately 40 times the MRHD based mg/m 2 body surface area. 14 C-triazolam was administered orally to pregnant mice. Drug-related material appeared uniformly distributed in the fetus with 14 C concentrations approximately the same as in the brain of the mother.
Lactation
: A lactating woman may pump and discard breast milk during treatment and for 28 hours after triazolam administration ( 8.2 ) 8.1 Pregnancy Pregnancy Exposure Registry There is a pregnancy exposure registry that monitors pregnancy outcomes in women exposed to psychiatric medications, including triazolam, during pregnancy. Healthcare providers are encouraged to register patients by calling the National Pregnancy Registry for Psychiatric Medications at 1-866-961-2388 or visiting online at https://womensmentalhealth.org/pregnancyregistry/. Risk Summary Neonates born to mothers using benzodiazepines late in pregnancy have been reported to experience symptoms of sedation and/or neonatal withdrawal [see Warnings and Precautions ( 5.10 ) and Clinical Considerations ]. Available data from published observational studies of pregnant women exposed to benzodiazepines do not report a clear association with benzodiazepines and major birth defects (see Data). The background risk of major birth defects and miscarriage for the indicated population is unknown. All pregnancies have a background risk of birth defect, loss, or other adverse outcomes. In the U.S. general population, the estimated background risk of major birth defects and miscarriage in clinically recognized pregnancies is 2% to 4% and 15% to 20%, respectively. Clinical Considerations Fetal/Neonatal Adverse Reactions Benzodiazepines cross the placenta and may produce respiratory depression, hypotonia, and sedation in neonates. Monitor neonates exposed to triazolam during pregnancy or labor for signs of sedation, respiratory depression, hypotonia and feeding problems. Monitor neonates exposed to triazolam during pregnancy for signs of withdrawal. Manage these neonates accordingly [see Warnings and Precautions ( 5.10 )]. Data Human Data Published data from observational studies on the use of benzodiazepines during pregnancy do not report a clear association with benzodiazepines and major birth defects. Although early studies reported an increased risk of congenital malformations with diazepam and chlordiazepoxide, there was no consistent pattern noted. In addition, the majority of more recent case-control and cohort studies of benzodiazepine use during pregnancy, which were adjusted for confounding exposures to alcohol, tobacco and other medications, have not confirmed these findings. Animal Data Oral administration of triazolam to pregnant rats and rabbits during the period of organogenesis caused skeletal developmental changes (variations and malformations) at maternally toxic doses in rats and at doses in rats and rabbits which are approximately equal to or greater than 200 times the maximum recommended human dose (MRHD) of 0.5 mg/day based on mg/m 2 body surface area. Oral administration of triazolam to male and female rats before mating, and continuing during gestation and lactation did not result in embryotoxicity at doses up to approximately 100 times the MRHD based on mg/m 2 body surface area, but did cause an increase in the number of stillbirths and postnatal pup mortalities at doses greater than or equal to approximately 40 times the MRHD based mg/m 2 body surface area. 14 C-triazolam was administered orally to pregnant mice. Drug-related material appeared uniformly distributed in the fetus with 14 C concentrations approximately the same as in the brain of the mother. 8.2 Lactation Risk Summary There are reports of sedation, poor feeding and poor weight gain in infants exposed to benzodiazepines through breast milk. There are no data on the presence of triazolam in human milk or the effects on milk production. Triazolam and its metabolites are present in the milk of lactating rats ( see Data ). When a drug is present in animal milk, it is likely that the drug will be present in human milk. The developmental and health benefits of breastfeeding should be considered along with the mother's clinical need for triazolam and any potential adverse effects on the breastfed infant from triazolam or from the underlying maternal condition. Clinical Considerations Infants exposed to triazolam through breast milk should be monitored for sedation, poor feeding and poor weight gain. A lactating woman may consider interrupting breastfeeding and pumping and discarding breast milk during treatment and for 28 hours (approximately 5 elimination half-lives) after triazolam administration in order to minimize drug exposure to a breast fed infant. Data Both triazolam and triazolam metabolites were detected in milk of rats. Lactating rats were orally administered 0.3 mg/kg 14 C-triazolam; drug and metabolite levels were determined in milk collected at 6 and 24 hours after administration. 8.4 Pediatric Use Safety and effectiveness of triazolam have not been established in pediatric patients. 8.5 Geriatric Use Elderly patients exhibit higher plasma triazolam concentrations due to reduced clearance as compared with younger subjects at the same dose. Because elderly patients are especially susceptible to dose related adverse reactions and to minimize oversedation, the smallest effective dose should be used [see Dosage and Administration ( 2.2 ), Clinical Pharmacology ( 12.3 )] .
Diet
Food & alcohol
- Drug & food interactions (label) 7 DRUG INTERACTIONS Use with Opioids: Increase the risk of respiratory depression ( 7.1 ) Use with Other CNS Depressants: Produces additive CNS depressant effects ( 7.1 ) Use with CYP 3A4 Inhibitors: Increased risk of adverse reactions ( 4 , 5.8 , 7.1 ) 7.1 Drugs Having Clinically Important Interactions With Triazolam Table 2 includes clinically significant drug interactions with triazolam [see Clinical Pharmacology ( 12.3 )] . Table 2 Clinically Important Drug Interactions with Triazolam Opioids Clinical implication The concomitant use of benzodiazepines and opioids increases the risk of respiratory depression because of actions at different receptor sites in the CNS that control respiration. Benzodiazepines interact at GABA A sites and opioids interact primarily at mu receptors. When benzodiazepines and opioids are combined, the potential for benzodiazepines to significantly worsen opioid-related respiratory depression exists. Prevention or management Limit dosage and duration of concomitant use of triazolam and opioids, and monitor patients closely for respiratory depression and sedation [see Warnings and Precautions ( 5.1 )] . CNS Depressants Clinical implication Triazolam produces additive CNS depressant effects when co-administered with other CNS depressants. Prevention or management Limit dosage and duration of triazolam during concomitant use with CNS depressants. Strong Inhibitors of CYP 3A Clinical implication Concomitant use of triazolam with strong CYP3A inhibitors has a profound effect on the clearance of triazolam, resulting in increased concentrations of triazolam and increased risk of adverse reactions [see Clinical Pharmacology ( 12.3 )]. Prevention or management Do not administer triazolam with a strong CYP3A4 inhibitor [see Contraindications ( 4 ), Warnings and Precautions ( 5.8 )]. Moderate and Weak Inhibitors of CYP 3A Clinical implication Concomitant use of triazolam with moderate or weak inhibitors of CYP3A inhibitors may increase the concentrations of triazolam, resulting in increased risk of adverse reactions [see Clinical Pharmacology ( 12.3 )]. Prevention or management Use with caution and consider appropriate dose reduction of triazolam when coadministered with moderate and weak CYP3A inhibitors [see Warnings and Precautions ( 5.8 )]. Strong Inducers of CYP 3A Clinical implication Coadministration of triazolam with strong inducers of CYP3A4 can significantly decrease the plasma concentration of triazolam and may decrease effectiveness of triazolam. Prevention or management Caution is recommended during coadministration of triazolam with strong inducers of CYP3A4. Interactions Based on Experience with Other Benzodiazepines or in vitro Studies with Triazolam Clinical implication Available data from clinical studies of benzodiazepines other than triazolam, from in vitro studies with triazolam, or from in vitro studies with benzodiazepines other than triazolam suggest a possible drug interaction with triazolam [see Clinica
Trust
Sources & disclaimer
Source: Local active-ingredient clinical extract; FDA drug label via OpenFDA/DailyMed; Professional class pharmacology (Therapeutic agent (verify pharmacological class))
Last reviewed: 01 Aug 2026
Decision support only — not a substitute for clinical judgment, product SmPC, or Kenya STG/EML.